A circumcision decision can feel big and complicated. You might be weighing cultural expectations, medical advice, and your own values all at once. Understanding what are the benefits and risks of circumcision in clear, concrete terms can help you make a choice that feels informed and aligned with your priorities.
Below, you will find a balanced overview of what circumcision is, why people choose it, what the science says about benefits, and what the short and long term risks may be.
Understanding what circumcision involves
Circumcision is a surgical procedure in which a healthcare provider removes the foreskin, the fold of skin that covers the tip of the penis. After the procedure, the head of the penis (the glans) stays exposed all the time (WebMD).
You will see circumcision in a few different contexts:
- Newborn circumcision, usually done within the first days or weeks of life
- Childhood circumcision, often for a specific medical reason
- Adult circumcision, often for personal, medical, or religious reasons
Globally, an estimated 38% of males are circumcised. In the United States, circumcision remains common and is frequently done for non religious reasons, although rates have been gradually declining over the past few decades (WebMD, Evidence Based Birth).
Why parents and adults choose circumcision
If you are deciding for your baby or considering the surgery for yourself, your reasons might be medical, cultural, practical, or some combination.
Common reasons for choosing circumcision include:
- Religious or cultural tradition
- Desire for perceived hygiene benefits
- Hopes of lowering infection or cancer risks
- Wanting a child to look similar to the circumcised parent or peers
- Medical issues like a very tight foreskin that does not retract
In the United States, non religious parents often mention hygiene, prevention of infections or cancer, and social norms as major factors in their decision (Evidence Based Birth).
Opponents of routine newborn circumcision raise different concerns. They see it as an unnecessary surgery on someone who cannot consent, one that removes a normal body part with its own functions and sensitivity. They argue that similar health benefits can be achieved through safer or less invasive approaches, such as good hygiene and safer sex practices (Evidence Based Birth).
Understanding both sides makes it easier to clarify what matters most to you.
Medical benefits often cited
When you ask what are the benefits and risks of circumcision, health providers will typically start with the potential benefits. These can differ depending on whether circumcision is done in infancy or adulthood and on where you live.
Lower risk of certain infections
Circumcision appears to lower the risk of a few specific infections.
For infants, studies suggest benefits like:
- Reduced risk of urinary tract infections in the first year of life
- Lower rates of foreskin and glans inflammation, such as balanitis and meatitis
- Less chance of phimosis, a foreskin that becomes too tight to retract later in childhood
Neonatal circumcision has a relatively low overall complication rate, estimated at about 0.2% to 0.6%, which is notably lower than the 1.5% to 3.8% seen with adult circumcision (PMC – NCBI).
For sexually active adults, especially in regions with high rates of sexually transmitted infections, circumcision has been linked with:
- A 51% to 60% lower risk of heterosexual HIV acquisition in adult men based on randomized trials in Africa (PMC – NCBI)
- A 28% to 34% reduction in risk of genital herpes (HSV-2)
- A 32% to 35% reduction in high risk human papillomavirus (HR HPV) infection
- A 47% reduction in genital ulcer disease
These protective effects also appear to benefit female partners. Among women whose male partners are circumcised, studies have found reduced rates of HR HPV, bacterial vaginosis, and trichomoniasis (PMC – NCBI).
It is important to keep in mind that circumcision does not replace condoms or other safer sex practices. It can reduce risk, but it does not make anyone immune to STIs.
Reduced risk of penile cancer
Penile cancer is rare, but circumcision seems to lower the risk further. Medical sources suggest that circumcised men are less likely to develop this cancer, possibly because it is associated with chronic inflammation and certain HPV infections (WebMD).
Because penile cancer is already uncommon, this benefit is relatively small on an absolute scale for any individual, but some people still factor it into their decision.
Mixed findings on sexual function and satisfaction
You might wonder whether circumcision changes sexual pleasure or performance. Research here is complex and sometimes conflicting.
Some key findings include:
- Large studies have generally not found major differences in sexual satisfaction, drive, erection, or ejaculation between circumcised and uncircumcised men overall (PubMed, PMC – NCBI)
- In one prospective study of adult men circumcised after age 20, about 6% reported a better sex life after circumcision, while 20% reported a worse sex life, and nearly half reported less masturbatory pleasure (PubMed)
- Another trial found that some men reported increased penile sensitivity and easier orgasm after circumcision, and 97% of female partners reported no change or improved sexual satisfaction (PMC – NCBI)
These mixed results show that experiences vary. Surgical technique, healing, personal expectations, and preexisting problems all likely play a role in how you might feel after the procedure.
Short term risks and complications
Circumcision is surgery, and every surgery carries risks. The nature and likelihood of these risks depend on the person’s age, the technique, the skill of the provider, and whether the setting is sterile and properly equipped.
For newborns, the most common complications include:
- Bleeding. Usually this is just a few drops, but in rare cases severe bleeding can occur, especially if there is an undiagnosed bleeding disorder. This is why screening for family history of clotting problems is important. The Plastibell technique is associated with the lowest rate of bleeding compared with Gomco or Mogen clamps (Stanford Medicine).
- Infection. When proper sterile technique is used, infection is infrequent, but the presence of a foreign body such as the Plastibell device can increase risk. Rare but serious infections like sepsis, necrotizing fasciitis, or meningitis have been reported, and they require urgent treatment (Stanford Medicine).
Other early problems that can occur include:
- Too much or too little skin removed. Insufficient removal can lead to redundant foreskin that slides back over the glans, causing cosmetic issues or phimosis that may later need revision surgery. Certain conditions like buried penis or webbed penis make these problems more likely and are considered reasons to avoid routine neonatal circumcision (Stanford Medicine).
- Injury to the penis. Very rare but serious complications include meatal stenosis (a narrowing of the urinary opening), urethrocutaneous fistula (an abnormal passage from the urethra to the skin), tissue necrosis, or, in the most extreme reported cases, partial or full amputation of the glans, especially with incorrect use of a Mogen clamp (Stanford Medicine).
These events are uncommon when trained practitioners use proper technique in a medical setting, but they do illustrate why provider experience and setting matter so much.
Pain, stress, and infant well-being
If you are thinking of circumcision for a newborn, it is worth looking carefully at what the research says about pain and stress.
Studies show that neonatal circumcision is a painful, skin breaking procedure that triggers clear physiological stress responses. Infants experience increased heart rate and blood pressure, as well as elevated cortisol levels, a hormone associated with stress. These cortisol levels can remain raised for several days and may affect feeding, sleep, and early bonding (NCBI – PMC).
When circumcision is performed without adequate anesthesia or analgesia, the pain can be extreme. Research has documented:
- Heart rates up to 55 beats per minute higher than baseline
- Cortisol levels three to four times higher than pre procedure levels
- Severe behavioral distress, including crying, choking, and breathing difficulties
This has led some authors to call it one of the most painful forms of neonatal surgery documented (CIRP).
Afterwards, infants can show behavioral changes such as increased irritability, altered sleep patterns, and disrupted mother infant bonding. Some research suggests that early circumcision may produce long lasting changes in infant pain behavior and possibly permanent alterations in neural pathways related to pain (CIRP).
If you choose circumcision for a baby, you can ask detailed questions about pain control, such as which anesthetic methods will be used, how long they last, and what kind of comfort measures will be in place afterward.
Long term physical and psychological considerations
Beyond the immediate recovery, there are also questions about how circumcision may affect long term physical sensation, sexual function, and mental health.
Foreskin function and sensitivity
The foreskin is more than just extra skin. It protects and moisturizes the glans, helps maintain a specific environment around the head of the penis, and is richly supplied with nerve endings. A 2016 analysis described the foreskin as the most densely innervated and sensitive part of the penis, important for complete sexual response (PubMed).
When the foreskin is removed:
- The glans becomes constantly exposed to air, friction, and clothing
- The skin of the glans tends to thicken and keratinize over time
- The natural sliding motion of the foreskin in sexual activity is lost
Some authors argue that these changes may reduce sensitivity or require more intense stimulation for the same level of arousal or pleasure, although not all men report negative changes (Evidence Based Birth, PubMed).
Adult sexual experience after circumcision
As mentioned earlier, research with adult men who undergo circumcision later in life shows mixed outcomes:
- In one study, nearly half of men circumcised as adults reported decreased masturbatory pleasure, and 63% found masturbation more difficult, which may be related to surgical complications or loss of nerve endings (PubMed)
- A smaller proportion, about 6%, reported an overall improvement in their sex life, possibly due to the resolution of prior medical issues like tight foreskin or recurrent infections (PubMed)
These numbers highlight how individual and context dependent the experience can be. If you are an adult considering circumcision, discussing expectations and possible outcomes with a urologist can help you understand what is realistic in your specific situation.
Psychological and attachment effects
There is ongoing debate about potential psychological effects of infant circumcision.
Some circumcised men report feelings of anger, loss, shame, or victimization, along with lowered self esteem and recurrent distressing thoughts that they link to learning about or reflecting on their circumcision. These experiences can resemble some features of trauma responses, although not every circumcised man feels this way (CIRP).
A 2017 study of adult men in the United States found that those circumcised within the first month of life reported:
- Higher attachment insecurity (both anxious and avoidant styles)
- Lower emotional stability
- Higher perceived stress and more sensation seeking
- Higher sexual drive and less restricted sociosexuality, meaning more partners and greater openness to short term mating
However, the same study found no significant differences in empathy or trust between circumcised and uncircumcised men, which suggests that some social emotional traits may be affected while others are not. The authors also emphasized that these differences did not necessarily indicate pathology, but they might have implications at a population level (NCBI – PMC).
It is important to recognize the limits of this research. Many studies rely on self report, and some have not fully controlled for factors like socioeconomic status or religion.
Ethics, autonomy, and cultural context
When you think about what are the benefits and risks of circumcision, you are often really asking a larger ethical question: is it okay to permanently remove a sensitive body part from someone who cannot consent, in order to gain potential future health or social benefits?
A 2016 ethical analysis argued that non therapeutic circumcision of minors conflicts with core principles of medical ethics, including respect for autonomy, the duty to do good, the duty to do no harm, and justice. The authors suggested that, without a clear medical need, circumcision should be deferred until the individual can decide for himself. They also noted that early medical claims about circumcision benefits have sometimes been exaggerated or culturally biased, especially in the United States (PubMed).
At the same time, other public health experts frame neonatal circumcision as a legitimate preventive procedure, similar in some ways to vaccines, especially in regions with high HIV and STI rates. They point out that parents routinely consent to health interventions they believe are in their child’s best interests, and that restricting circumcision might interfere with religious freedom for Jewish and Muslim families (PMC – NCBI).
Different countries balance these issues in different ways. For example, a German court in 2012 ruled that circumcision could be considered criminal assault, while US law tends to prioritize parental rights and religious freedom, even as human rights advocates raise concerns about bodily integrity and equal protection (PubMed).
As you sort through this, it can help to ask:
- How do you weigh immediate pain and permanent alteration against possible future health benefits?
- How important are cultural, religious, or family traditions in your decision?
- How do you feel about bodily autonomy for children, compared with other preventive choices like vaccination?
There are no one size fits all answers, but asking the questions directly helps you make a more intentional choice.
Practical questions to ask your provider
Whether you are leaning toward or away from circumcision, talking with a healthcare provider you trust is key. Use your understanding of the benefits and risks to guide the conversation.
You might ask:
- What are the specific medical benefits for my child or for me, given our health history and where we live?
- What are the short and long term risks, and how often do you see them in your practice?
- What pain relief methods do you use, and how effective are they?
- Which circumcision technique do you use, and why do you prefer it?
- How will you handle complications if they occur?
- What are the non surgical alternatives for preventing infections or addressing foreskin problems?
Taking notes during the visit and giving yourself time to reflect afterward can make the decision feel less rushed and more grounded.
Finding a choice that fits your values
Circumcision sits at the crossroads of health, culture, ethics, and personal comfort. The medical literature shows real, measurable benefits, particularly for certain infections, but it also documents genuine risks, pain, and long term questions about sensation, psychology, and autonomy.
You do not have to resolve every debate in the scientific or ethical world. You only need to reach a decision that fits your circumstances and values.
By looking honestly at both the benefits and the risks, and by asking thoughtful questions, you give yourself the best chance of doing exactly that.
